(Click to listen) In the Bakumatsu period, terms like "kōgi" (public deliberation) and "kōron" (public opinion/discourse) were frequently used by various political factions. They sound appealingly democratic, suggesting "let's discuss and decide national policy together." For example, Tosa Domain's "kōgi seitai ron" envisioned a council of feudal lords as the political system after the Taisē Hōkan. However, who exactly constituted the "public" in "kōgi" (only powerful daimyo? lower samurai? commoners?) and how opinions would be aggregated and final decisions made, varied among proponents and often remained vague. This ideal of "kōgi" was inherited in the Meiji era's Five Charter Oaths ("Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established and all matters decided by public discussion"), but the gap between this ideal and reality would continue as a political challenge for Japan.
This Page's Summary in English (Click to expand and listen to paragraphs)
This page details the political crisis and the dynamics of various factions during the Bakumatsu period (roughly 1853-1868), a pivotal era marking the end of the Edo Shogunate and Japan's transition towards a modern state. This period is critical for understanding Japan's modernization and is a frequent topic in university entrance exams.
The arrival of Commodore Perry's "Black Ships" in 1853 shattered Japan's isolationist policy. The Shogunate, under pressure, signed the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854), a limited opening, followed by the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858), an unequal treaty that further eroded shogunal authority. Domestic political strife intensified with the Shogun succession dispute and the issue of imperial sanction for treaties, leading to Grand Elder Ii Naosuke's crackdown on opponents (Ansei Purge) and his assassination (Sakuradamon Incident, 1860), which fatally weakened the Shogunate.
The 1860s saw a complex interplay of the Kōbu Gattai (Union of Court and Shogunate) movement and the Sonnō Jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement. Powerful southwestern domains like Satsuma and Chōshū rose to prominence. Attempts at military expulsion of foreigners (e.g., Chōshū's attack at Shimonoseki, Anglo-Satsuma War) failed, leading some to realize the futility of simplistic xenophobia and to focus on internal political reform, often leaning towards overthrowing the Shogunate (Tōbaku).
The Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance (Satchō Dōmei, 1866) became the core of the Tōbaku movement. In 1867, Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu formally returned political authority to the Emperor (Taisē Hōkan). However, pro-imperial, anti-shogunate forces staged a coup d'état (Ōsei Fukko no Daigōrei), declaring the restoration of imperial rule and stripping Yoshinobu of power, which led to the Boshin War (1868-69) and the establishment of the Meiji government. Key factions included the Shogunate, the Imperial Court, powerful domains, and individual "shishi" (activists), driven by diverse and evolving ideologies.
The Bakumatsu period's rapid political changes were driven by internal contradictions, external pressures from Western powers, and the actions of key individuals. It marked the end of samurai rule and paved the way for a centralized modern nation-state, fostering a new level of political consciousness among various social strata.